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CHRISTIANITY
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practise
the reading of the following words and say what Russian
words help to guess their meanings:
spirit,
disciple, to comfort, gentle, to satisfy, to locate, lamp, container, commandment,
Pharisees
Give
the initial forms of the following words:
belongs,
hearts, hidden, thrown, highest, longer, does, better, heard, told, salty
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
righteousness,
merciful, container, commandment
Do
you now the following words?
crowd,
mountainside, disciple, to bless, kingdom, heaven, to mourn, to comfort,
gentle , humble, to possess, earth, hunger, thirst, righteousness, to satisfy,
merciful, heart, pure, peace, to prosecute, to insult, evil, account, to
rejoice, reward, salt, to lose, taste, to trample, to hide, to locate,
hill, to praise, to fulfill, truth, law, anyone, therefore, commandment,
scribe, to murder, court, cause, hell, fire
Text. NEW TESTAMENT
MATTHEW
5th
chapter
The Sermon On The Mount
1 When
Jesus saw the crowds, He went up on the mountainside. And when He sat down,
His disciples came to him.
2
Then He began to teach them:
3
“Blessed are those who are poor in spirit, for the Kingdom of heaven belongs
to them.
4
Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted.
5
Blessed are those who are gentle (humble), for they will possess the earth.
6
Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will
be satisfied.
7
Blessed are those who are merciful, for they will find mercy.
8
Blessed are those whose hearts are pure, for they will see God.
9
Blessed are those who make peace, for they will be called the sons of God.
10
Blessed are those who are prosecuted for doing right, for the Kingdom of
heaven belongs to them.
11
“Blessed are you when people insult you, persecute you, lie and speak all
kinds of evil about you, on account of Me.
12
Continue to rejoice and be glad, because you have a great reward in heaven,
for they persecuted the prophets who lived before you in the same way.”
13
“You are the salt of the earth. If salt loses its taste, how will it be
made salty again? It is no longer good for anything but to be thrown out
and trampled on by people.
14
You are the light of the world. A town cannot be hidden when it is located
on a hill.
15
And you do not light a lamp and put it under a container but on a lampstand,
where it gives light to everyone in the house.
16
So let your light shine before people that they may see the good you do
and praise your Father in heaven.”
17
“ Do not think that I came to set aside the Law or the Prophets. I did
not come to set them aside but to fulfill them.
18
I tell you the truth, until heaven and earth pass away not an i or the
dot of an i will pass away from the Law until everything is done.
19
Anyone, therefore, who sets aside one of the least of thesecommandments
and teaches others to do the same will be called the least in the Kingdom
of heaven. But anyone who does and teaches what they say will be called
great in the Kingdom of heaven.
20
For I tell you, unless your righteousness is much better than that of the
scribes and Pharisees, you will never enter the Kingdom of heaven.”
21
“ You have heard that long ago people were told: ‘Do not murder. Whoever
murder must answer for it in court.’
22
But I tell you that anyone who is angry with his brotherwithout a cause
will have to answer for it in court. Anyone who calls his brother a ‘numbskull’
(empty-one) will have to answer for it before the highest court (Sunhedrin
- the highest Jewish court). Anyone who calls him a ‘fool’ will have to
answer for it in hellfire (Greek: “gehenna tou puros” - hell of fire).
MATTHEW
5th
chapter 23-36
The Sermon On The Mount
23
Therefore if thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there rememberest that
thy brother hath aught against thee;
24
Leave there thy gift before the altar, and go thy way; first be reconciled
to thy brother, and then come and offer thy gift.
25
Agree with thine adversary quikly, whiles thou art in the way with him;
lest at any time the adversary deliver thee to the judge, and the judge
deliver thee to the the officer, and thou be cast into prison.
26
Verily I say unto thee, Thou shalt by no means come out thence, till thou
hast paid the uttermost farthing.
27
Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time, Thou shalt not commit
adultery:
28
But I say unto you, That whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her
hath commited adultery in his heart.
29
And if thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast it from thee:
for it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish, and
not that thy whole body should be cast into hell.
30
And if thy right hand offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thee: for
it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish, and not
that thy whole body should be cast into hell.
31
It hath been said, Whosoever shall put away his wife, let him give her
a writing of divorcing:
32
But I say unto you, That whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for
the cause of fornication, causeth her to commit adultery: and whosoever
shall marry her that is divorced committeth adultery.
33
Again, ye have heard that it hath been said by them of old time, Thou shalt
not forswear thyself, but shalt perform unto the Lord thine oaths:
34
But I say unto you, Swear not at all: neither by heaven; for it is God’s
throne:
35
Nor by the earth; for it is his footstool: neither by Jerusalem; for it
is the city of the great King.
36
Neither shalt thou swear by the head, because thou canst not make one hair
white or black.
JUDAISM
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practice
the reading of the following words and say what Russian
words help to guess their meanings:
Lord,
bondage, graven, image, generation, commandments, Honor, adultery.
Give
the initial forms of the following words:
spoke,
saying, brought, graven, showing, blessed, giving.
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
likeness,
iniquity, generation, commandments, guiltless,
manservant,
halted, seventh, blessed.
Prove
that the words in capital letters are nouns:
a
graven IMAGE, upon the fourth GENERATION, your GATES, your neighbor’s HOUSE.
Do
you now the following words?
to
bow, to serve, to show, to keep, to hold, to remember, to labor, to bless,
to halt, to hallow, to honor, to hate.
Translate
the following into Russian:
make
for yourself, in the water under the earth, keep My commandments, neither
you, nor your son, honor your father and your mother, you shall not commit
adultery.
Guess
the meaning of the words in capital letters from the context:
For
in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that
is in them, and He HALTED His work on the seventh day. Six days shall you
LABOR and do all your work. You shall not COVET your neighbour’s house.
Text. TORAH. EXODUS 20.
And
God spoke all these words, saying:
I
am the Lord your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the
house of bondage.
You
shall have no other gods besides Me.
You
shall not make for yourself a graven image, nor the likeness of any form
that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in
the water under the earth. You shall not bow down to them, nor serve them;
for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the
fathers upon the children, upon the third and upon the fourth generation
of them that hate me, and showing mercy unto the thousands of generations
of them that love Me and keep My commandments.
You
shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain, for the Lord will
not hold him guiltless who takes His name in vain. Remember the Sabbath
Day, to keep it holy. Six days shall you labor and do all your work. But
the seventh day is a Sabbath unto the Lord your God. You shall not do any
work thereon, neither you, nor your son, nor your daughter, nor your manservant,
nor your maidservant, nor your cattle, nor the stranger that is within
your gates. For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and
all that is in them, and He halted His work on the seventh day. Therefore
the Lord blessed the Sabbath Day, and hallowed it.
Honor
your father and your mother, that your day may be long upon the land which
the Lord your God is giving you.
You
shall not murder.
You
shall not commit adultery.
You
shall not steal.
You
shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
You
shall not covet your neighbor’s house; you shall not covet your neighbor’s
wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his ass,
nor any thing that is your neighbor’s.
(from
The Prayer Book. Hebrew Publishing Co., N.Y. 1961.)
Text. OLD TESTAMENT. EXODUS 20.
1 And
God spake all these words, saying,
2
I am the Lord thy God which have brought thee out of the land of Egypt,
out of the house of bondage.
3
Thou shalt have no other gods before Me.
4
Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of anything
that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in
the water under the earth.
5
Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for I the Lord
thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the
children, unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me;
6
And shewing mercy unto thousands of generations of them that love me and
keep my commandments.
7
Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain, for the Lord
will not hold him guiltless that taketh His name in vain.
8
Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy.
9
Six days shalt thou labor, and do all thy work
10
But the seventh day is the sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shalt
not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor thy manservant,
nor thy maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within your
gates:
11
For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in
them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the Lord blessed the sabbath
day, and hallowed it.
12
Honor thy father and thy mother: that thy day may be long upon the land
which the Lord thy God giveth thee.
13
Thou shalt not kill.
14
Thou shalt not commit adultery.
15
Thou shalt not steal.
16
Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour.
17
Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s house, thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s
wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his ass,
nor any thing that is thy neighbour’s.
(The Holy Bible containing the Old and New testaments. London)
EXERCISES
1.
Compare trasslations of the texts of Exodus 20 given above and write down
as many differences as possible.
2.
Explain the following expressions:
the
house of bondage; no other gods besides Me; make for yourself a graven
image; take the name of the Lord your God in vain; bear false witness;
ISLAM
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practise
the reading of the following words and say what Russian words help to guess
their meanings:
precise,
calculations, traditional, reasonably, clan,
Give
the initial forms of the following words:
became,
born., believed, seems, routed, accepted
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
traditional,
exactly, probable., certainly, dubious, calculations, commonl, traditional,
incontestable, reasonably
Do
you now the following words?
reign,
untrue, precise, dubious, vary, to accept, to belong, statement, incontestable,
regarded
Translate
the following into Russian:
no
one knows exactly; it was believed to have been; during the reign of; which
seems probable; it was said to have been in the Year of Elephant; that
is certainly untrue; as we sometimes call him. These traditional statements,
while not wholly, incontestable, may reasonably be regarded as sure.
Text. Birth of a Prophet
No
one knows exactly when Muhammad, who was to became the Prophet of Allah,
was born. It was believed to have been during the reign of Khusro Anosharwan,
that is before 579, which seems probable. It was said to have been in the
Year of Elephant - the year, that is, in which the birds of the air routed
the army of Abraha before Mecca - but that is certainly untrue. The precise
date, arrived at by means of some highly dubious calculations, varies
between 567 and 573. The most commonly accepted year is 571.
Muhhammad,
or Mahomet as we sometimes call him, was born in Mecca of a father called
Abdallah and a mother whose name was Amina. He belonged on his father’s
side to the clan of Hashim of the Quraysh. These traditional statements,
while not wholly incontestable, may reasonably be regarded as sure.
(from Mohammed by M.Rodinson)
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practise
the reading of the following words and say what Russian words
help to guess their meanings:
families,
practice, traditionally, population, cleaver, hook, laborer, special, presentable
Give
the initial forms of the following words:
cities,
eaten, given, seen, being, herded, centres, died
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
traditionally,
charitable, population, available, commemorate, salesman, alternatively,
laborer, special, flawless, completion, presentable
Do
you now the following words?
sacrifice,
lamb, bullock, amongst, spare, meat, charitable, gifts, flocks, herded,
population, markets, available, commemorate, piece, commemorate, butchers,
casual, alternatively, salesman, appear, hook, rope, wages, laborer, site,
animal, purpose, flawless, ram, completion
Translate
the following into Russian:
sacrifice
a lamb; the meat is eaten the same day; charitable gifts to the poor; large
flocks of sheep are seen being herded towards the population centres, markets
appear on any available piece of spare land, hook bound together with rope,
a laborer on our site, this costs a lot more, an animal sacrificed for
a special purpose needs to be flawless, had been washed and made presentable
Text. Kurban Bairami = Muslim Festival of Sacrifice.
During
this four-day Muslim holiday many Turkish families sacrifice a lamb, sheep
or bullock on the first day. The practice is still common amongst people
living in the large cities. The meat is eaten the same day at a large family
meal and spare meat or food was traditionally given away as charitable
gifts to the poor.
During
the weeks before Bayram, small and large flocks of sheep are seen being
herded towards the population centres and impromptu livestock markets appear
on any available piece of spare land.
To
commemorate those who have died during the year a sacrifice is made on
the day before Byram. During these two days butchers roam the streets on
the lookout for casual work. Alternatively, salesman appear with knife
cleaver and hook bound together with rope, for people interested in d.i.y!
In
1986 a lamb for sacrifice cost about 30,000 TL, half a month’s wages for
a laborer on our site. An animal sacrificed for a special purpose needs
to be flawless and this costs a lot more. The ram sacrificed for the completion
of Elmali Viaduct cost 250,000 TL (110 pounds) and had been washed and
made presentable.
(from Leaves from a turkish notebook by Philip Iddison, a highway engineer /Petits Propos Culinaires 34/)
EXERCISES
1.
Write an abstract of the text and compare it with that in the Appendix.
2.
Answer the following questions:
a)
Why does the author writes “a laborer on our site”?
b)
What does ‘d.i.y.’ mean?
c)
Explain why does an animal sacrificed for a special purpose needs to be
flawless?
HINDUISM
Let
noble thoughts come to us from every side.
Rigveda,
1-89-i
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practise
the reading of the following words and say what Russian words help to guess
their meanings:
history,
biography, mythology, civilization, philosophy, ritual, religions, essentiality,
myth
Give
the initial forms of the following words:
knowing,
grasped, preserved, conveyed, acknowledged
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
mythology,
civilization, sufficient, ancient, attitude, particular, spiritual, essentiality
Do
you now the following words?
to
dispense, sufficient, ancient, attitude, particular, to grasp, to preserve,
to convey, unless, to acknowledge, essentiality
Text. Ramayana
The Ramayana is not a history or biography. It is a part of Hindu mythology. We cannot understand Greek life and Greek civilization without knowing all about Zeus, Apollo, Hercules, Venus, Hector, Priam, Achiles, Ulysses and others. So also one cannot understand Hindu dharma unless one knows Rama and Seeta, Bharata, Laksamana, Ravana, Kumbhakarna and Hanuman. Mythology cannot be dispensed with. Philosophy alone or rituals alone or mythology alone cannot be sufficient. These are the three stands of all ancient religions. The attitude towards things spiritual which belongs to a particular people cannot be grasped or preserved or conveyed unless we have all these three. Even an iconoclast like Bernard Show has acknowledged the essentiality of myths.
(by C.Rajagopalachari)
Names
Bharata
- brother of Rama
Dharma
- duty as laid down by religion or custom
Hanuman
- son of Wind-God, Vayu
Kumbhakarna
- brother of Ravana
Laksamana
- brother of Rama
Rama
- hero of Ramayana.
Ravana
- king of demons
Seeta
- wife of Rama
Text Hindu Tolerance
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practice
the reading of the following words and say what Russian words help
to guess their meanings:
tolerance,
basically, personality, attributes, limitations, proclaimed, doctrine,
logical, hstorically, demonstrated, military,
Give
the initial forms of the following words:
qualities,
chosen, taken
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
remarkable,
basically, personality, particular, limitation, weakness, originally, numerous,
addition
Do
you know this words?
remarkable,
tolerance, deity, to impose, weakness, to hunger, mercy, seer, sage, worshipper,
to conceive, attitude, path, convincingly, to molest, to settle
Translate
the following into Russian:
are
regarded as limitations; sages speak of it in different ways; invites the
worshipper to choose; spiritual longing; the same tolerant
attitude
is taken toward other religions; spiritual liberation; a military force;
Text. The Basis of Hindu Tolerance.
The
remarkable tolerance of Hinduism derives basically from the belief that
Ultimate Reality or the supreme Spirit is without name, form, personality,
or qualities. The particular name and attributes of any deity are regarded
as limitations imposed on the Supreme Spirit by the weakness of man, who
hungers for a god of love and mercy. The Vedic seer proclaimed, “Reality
is one; sages speak of it in different ways.” The doctrine of the chosen
deity (ishta-devata) invites the worshipper to choose, from among all the
gods conceived by man in the past, the one which best satisfies his spiritual
longing. While this doctrine was originally applied to the numerous deities
mentioned in the Hindu scriptures, there is no logical stopping-place,
and the same tolerant attitude is taken toward other religions.
Hinduism
thus holds that there are many ways, many paths which lead toward spiritual
liberation. Historically it has convincingly demonstrated this belief.
In addition to Jains and Buddhists, communities of Jews, Syrian Christians,
and Zoroastrians settled in India and lived unmolested. Muslims lived peacefully
in India for three hundred years before Islam came as a military force
in the eleventh century A.D.
YOGA
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practice
the reading of the following words and say what Russian words
help to guess their meanings:
human,
occupies, instrument, manifests, Spirit., physical, function, master
Give
the initial forms of the following words:
greater,
lesser, higher, occupies, clothes, decieved, knowing, covering, best
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
immortal
, conscious, merely, manifestation, development, consequently, unhealthy,
imperfectly, physical, properly, advantage, growth
Prove
that the words in capital letters are nouns:
the
YOGIS believe, the fleshy COVERING, development of the BODY
Do
you now the following words?
to
believe, to decieve, to cover, to grow, to develop, to function
Translate
the following into Russian:
to
a greater or lesser degree, puts on and off from time to time, while knowing
these things, in this particularly stage of his development, the body is
the Temple of the Spirit, an unhealthy and imperfectly developed physical
body
Guess
the meaning of the words in capital letters from the context:
the
body is the instrument in which, and by which the Spirit manifests and
works; the care and development of the body is as worthy a task as is the
development of some of the higher parts of Man; the fleshy covering is
necessary for Man’s manifestation and growth of Man
Text
The
Yogis believe, you know, that the real Man is not his body. They know that
the immortal “I” of which each human being is conscious to a greater or
lesser degree, is not the body which it merely occupies and uses. They
know that the body is but as a suit of clothes which the Spirit puts on
and off from time to time. They know the body for what it is, and are not
decieved into the belief that it is the real Man. But while knowing these
things, they also know that the body is the instrument in which, and by
which the Spirit manifests and works. They know that the fleshy covering
is necessary for Man’s manifestation and growth in this particularly stage
of his development. They know that the body is the Temple of the Spirit.
And they, consequently, believe that the care and development of the body
is as worthy a task as is the development of some of the higher parts of
Man, for with an unhealthy and imperfectly developed physical body the
mind cannot function properly, nor can the instrument be used to the best
advantage by its master, the Spirit.
(from
“Hatha Yoga” by Yogi Ramacharaka)
BUDDHISM
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practice
the reading of the following words and say what Russian words
help to guess their meanings:
discussion,
regulation, detailed, caste, regulation, minimal, respect, modern, social,
protest, comparable, moral, code, speech, liquor, ritual, ceremonies, extremely
Give
related words for the following words:
discussion,
significantly, regulation, connection, relatively, unlawful, performed,
religious, originate
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
discussion,
significantly, comparison, organization, extremely, ordinary, relatively,
institutionally, connection, regulation, comparable, unlawful, prescription,
Hinduism, Buddhism
Do
you know this words?
brief,
to differ, significantly, several, point, comparison, ecclesiastical, caste,
relatively, to bear, resemblance, connection, pattern, absence, law, comparable,
relatively, percept, to refrain, to steal, indulgence, prescription, to
establish, elder, funerals, tonsure, male, to conduct, monk, layman
Translate
the following into Russian:
originated
partly as a protest against; the moral code; the prescription of ritual;
ceremonies are performed by the elder men of the family; religious ceremonies
conducted by monks
Text. Buddhism
Our
brief discussion here will deal with Theravada Buddhism, the principal
religion of ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. Buddhism as practiced
in China, Korea and Japan is of the Mahayana school and differs significantly
from the Theravada in several points of doctrine and practice.
Buddhism
and society.
An
interesting comparison can be drawn between Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hinduism
there has been very little over-all ecclesiastical organization, but extremely
detailed regulation of ordinary social life through the caste system and
Hindu law. In Buddhism the reverse is true - ecclesiastical organization
is relatively well developed, but the regulation of ordinary social life
is minimal. In this respect the Theravada Buddhist countries may bear some
resemblance to modern western
countries,
where religion is highly organized institutionally but has relatively little
connection with the pattern of social life.
Buddhism
originated partly as a protest against the castle system, and it has continued
to pride itself on the absence of caste in the Theravada countries with
the exception of Ceylon. There is no Buddhist law comparable to Hindu or
Islamic law. The moral code to be followed by the Buddhist layman is relatively
simple one, centering on the Five Percepts - refraining from killing, stealing,
unlawful sexual indulgence, wrong speech, and drinking liquor. As regards
the prescription of ritual, “Indian Buddhism did not establish a system
of ceremonies for family life comparable to those of Hinduism, nor have
such ceremonies grown up in Theravada or Mahayana Buddhism” (Hajime Nakamura.
“Unity and Diversity in Buddhism,” The Path of the Buddha, ed. Kenneth
W.Morgan, p.398). Marriage ceremonies are performed by the elder men of
the family and are not regarded as religious ceremonies. Funerals and the
tonsure ceremony performed upon male children, however, are religious ceremonies
conducted by monks.
(from “India as a secular state” by D.E.Smith)
SECULAR STATE
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practice
the reading of the following words and say what Russian words help
to guess their meanings:
state,
commonly, exist, religion, reason, term, equivalent, separation, contributed,
conception, produced, vacuum, historical, indicate, general, orientation,
liberal, democratic, tradition, motivated, aspects, essentially, definition,
guarantees, individual, corporate, interfere, examination.
Give
the initial forms of the following words:
using,
closest, singularly, misleading, ideas, contributed, produced, shown, later,
terms, derived, motivated, expounded, derived, guarantees, deals, connected,
seen, involves, interrelated, concerning, mentioned, used, closer.
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
secular,
commonly, relationship, sufficient, closest, singularly, historical, later,
orientation, accomplish, contribution, essentially, definition, constitutionally,
examination, relationships, freedom, citizenship, separation, religion,
visualize.
Prove
that the words in capital letters are nouns:
the
TERM, to describe the RELATIONSHIP, the STATE and RELIGION, to the CONCEPTION,
the closest EQUIVALENT, in the historical SURVEY, the historical ORIENTATION,
the liberal democratic TRADITION, by an active HOSTILITY, the working DEFINITION,
the secular STATE, the three SETS.
Do
you now the following words?
to
describe, ought, to exist, to contribute, to mislead, to produce, to accomplish,
to distinguish, to constitute, to expound, to derive, to suggest, to guarantee,
to connect, to seek, to promote, to interfere, to involve, to represent,
to mention, to deal,it will be seen that to suffice, it may help to visualize,
Translate
the following into Russian:
is
commonly used, the relationship which ought to exist, the ideas which have
contributed to the conception, as will be shown, can be derived from, while
many aspects of our conception,
Guess
the meaning of the words in capital letters from the context:
The
term “secular state” is commonly used in present-day India TO DESCRIBE
the relationship which exists, or which ought to exist, between the state
and religion. This in itself is SUFFICIENT reason for using the term in
this book. The ideas which have CONTRIBUTED to the conception of the secular
state were not produced in a vacuum. It may be well to indicate the historical
orientation of the conception we are EXPOUNDING. Our conception of the
secular state is DERIVED from the liberal democratic tradition of the West.
Deals with the individual as a citizen IRRESPECTIVE of his religion. It
will be seen that the conception of a secular state INVOLVES three sets
relationships concerning the state, religion, and the individual. It may
help to VISUALIZE a triangle in which the two angles at the base represent
religion and the state; the apex represents the individual.
Text. The concept of the Secular State.
The
term “secular state” is commonly used in present-day India to describe
the relationship which exists, or which ought to exist, between the state
and religion. This in itself is sufficient reason for using the term in
this book. In addition, the closest equivalent in Anglo-American usage,
“separation of church and state,” would be singularly inappropriate and
misleading in discussing a country in which the majority religion is Hinduism.
The
ideas which have contributed to the conception of the secular state were
not produced in a vacuum, as will be shown in the historical survey later
in the chapter. However, it may be well at the outset to indicate in general
terms the historical orientation of the conception we are expounding. Three
brief points will suffice to accomplish this.
First
our conception of the secular state is derived from the liberal democratic
tradition of the West. It is thus to be distinguish from the secularism
of the Marxian communist tradition, which is motivated by an active hostility
to religion as such. Second, while many aspects of our conception of the
secular state are common to all the countries within the democratic tradition,
certain aspects constitute the particular contribution of the United States
of America. Third, conception here expounded is essentially that can be
derived from the Indian Constitution itself.
The
working definition which I would suggest is as follows: The secular state
is a state which guarantees individual and corporate freedom of religion,
deals with the individual as a citizen irrespective of his religion, is
not constitutionally connected to a particular religion nor does it seek
either to promote or interfere with religion. Upon closer examination it
will be seen that the conception of a secular state involves three distinct
but interrelated sets of relationships concerning the state, religion,
and the individual. The three sets of relations are:
1.
religion and the individual (freedom of religion)
2.
the state and the individual (citizenship)
3.
the state and religion (separation of state and religion).
It
may help to visualize a triangle in which the two angles at the base represent
religion and the state; the apex represents the individual. The sides and
base of the triangle represent the three sets of relationships mentioned
above.
(Chapter 1. What is a secular state? from “India as a secular state” by D.E.Smith (Princeton University Press, 1963, 518p.)
EXERCISES
Choose
key words for the text.
Write
an abstract of the text and compare it withthat in the Appendix.
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practice
the reading of the following words and say what Russian words help
to guess their meanings:
region,
aspect, relevant, doctrine, organization, history, human, history, favorable,
course, central, political, correspondingly, diverse, tolerance, principle,
realization, note, to demonstrate, institution, to confront, tradition,
conception, practice, support, separation, basis, to tend, to regulate,
social, ritual, ceremony, festival, virtually, caste, system, confront
Give
the initial forms of the following words:
taken,
greater, keeping, shown, difficulties, making, ceremonies
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
Hinduism,
Buddhism, religions, particularly, organization, important, unreal, ultimately,
temporal, favorable, secular, crucial, central, correspondingly, attitude,
peaceful, coexistence, tolerance, obviously, intolerance, practically,
impossible, realization, effective, ecclesiastical, highly, institution,
majority, traditional, separation, prescribe, regulation
Prove
that the words in capital letters are nouns:
the
secular STATE, for effective ecclesiastical ORGANIZATION, a highly organized
religious INSTITUTION
Do
you know this words?
relevant,
inquiry, concern, to relate, view, to regard, vital, ultimately, to assume,
secure, to maintain, temporal, favorable, crucial, influence, challenge,
correspondingly, attitude, coexistence, diverse, faith, tolerance, degree,
majority, obviously, impossible, capacity, ecclesiastical, to confront,
demand, to encounter, fusion, support, extent, significant, to prescribe,
virtually, implement
Translate
the following into Russian:
aspects
which are particularly relevant to our inquiry; to regard history as unreal;
on the other hand; a religion which regards the proper course of history
as crucial and central to its task in the world; the peaceful coexistence;
effective ecclesiastical organization; the more highly organized the majority
religion; the greater the difficulties which will be encountered ; we must
consider the historical traditions; it is obvious that; some go far beyond
this
Text. The Nature of the Major Religions
Hinduism,
Buddhism and Islam are the major religions of this region. There are five
aspects of religion which are particularly relevant to our inquiry; the
first two aspects concern doctrine, the other three relate to organization.
First,
the view of history taken by a religion, that is, whether human history
is regarded as real and important, is a vital point. A religion which regards
history as unreal, or if real, ultimately unimportant, may be assumed to
be unconcerned with securing or maintaining temporal power. This should
be favorable to the secular state. On the other hand, a religion which
regards the proper course of history as crucial and central to its task
in the world, is more likely to rely upon political power in order to influence
history. The challenge to the secular state would be correspondingly greater.
Second,
we must consider the attitude of a religion toward other religions. Since
the peaceful coexistence of diverse faiths is basic to the secular state,
the degree of tolerance shown by the majority religion to other religions
will obviously be important. Widespread intolerance would make the secular
principle practically impossible of realization.
Third
it will be important to note what capacity a given religion has demonstrated
for effective ecclesiastical organization. A highly organized religious
institution, like Roman Catholic Church in the West, is in a position to
confront the state and to make demands upon it. In general, the more highly
organized the majority religion, the greater the difficulties which will
be encountered in making or keeping the state secular.
Fourth,
we must consider the historical traditions of separation or fusion of political
and religious functions. It is obvious that if the traditional conceptions
and practices of a religion support the idea of separation, there will
be some basis for the building of a secular state.
Fifth,
the extent to which a religion has tended to regulate social life will
be significant. All religions prescribe rituals, ceremonies, and festivals
which are important to the social life of their peoples, but some go far
beyond this to regulate virtually every aspect of society, as in the caste
system or Muslim law. The greater the degree of such social regulation
by a religion, the more difficult it will be to implement the principles
of secularism.
(from ‘India as a Secular State’ by D.E.Smith )
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practice
the reading of the following words and say what Russian words help
to guess their meanings:
theory,
cycle, period, creation, system, process, to repeat, natural, experience,
combination, matter, spirit, action, illusory, cosmic, energy, universal,
classical, history, essential, reality, doctrine, to emphasize, fact, empirical,
phenomena, contact, ultimate, original, ignorance, individuality, permanence,
basis, effect, to operate, moral, liberation, realization, nature, identity,
escape, affair, metaphysical, position, extremely, detail, regulation,
individual, social, chiefly, expression, instinct, ethical, empirical,
reality, political, institution, course, philosophical, contrast
Give
the initial forms of the following words:
phenomena,
highest, higher, lower
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
creation,
destruction, eternally, natural, combination,action, illusory, creator,
universal, dissolution, significant, vastness, essential, writer, emphasize,
empirical, tangible, reality, ignorance, consequence, liberation, realization,
identity, spiritual, essential, metaphysical, position, extremely, regulation,
social, chiefly, expression, prosperity, reality, institution, secondary,
conductive, development
Do
you know this words?
to
provide, to recur, creation, destruction, complete, eternally, experience,
to create, dissolution, to vanish, view, significant, swallowed, vastness,
essential, to emphasize, tangible, phenomenal, empirical, ignorance, to
assume, permanence, consequence, deed, to perform, to reach, to attain,
supreme, escape, to regard, to involve, affair, phenomena, to reconcile,
extremely, prosperity, to pertain, secondary, conductive, development,
value
Translate
the following into Russian:
this
process has been repeating itself eternally; was created out of the combination
of matter and spirit; neither the empirical self nor the tangible phenomenal
world possess any reality; with which the empirical self seems to come
into contact; from the ultimate point of view; the permanence of the essential
self is the basis for rebirth upon death; The law of cause and effect;
Liberation from the cycle of rebirths; realization of the nature of the
self; The highest spiritual goal; extremely detailed regulation of individual
and social life; the contrast with Islam is quite marked;
Text. The Hindu view of History.
Hinduism
provides a theory of cycles or recurring periods of creation and destruction.
Each world system makes one complete cycle of creation and destruction,
and this process has been repeating itself eternally. The present natural
world of human experience was created out of the combination of matter
and spirit by means of the action of MAYA, the illusory cosmic energy of
Brahma the Creator. The universal dissolution and destruction comes about
when Brahma vanishes into himself. As S.J.Samartha puts it, “ In classical
Hindu view history is not significant because it is swallowed up in the
vastness of the cosmic process.”
Hindu
thought holds that the essential self in man (ATMAN, sometimes translated
as soul) and the ultimate Reality are one. This doctrine, according to
a Hindu writer, “emphasizes the fact that neither the empirical self nor
the tangible phenomenal world, with which the empirical self seems to come
into contact, possess any reality from the ultimate point of view.” Through
original ignorance the essential self assumes individuality, and the permanence
of the essential self is the basis for rebirth upon death. The law of cause
and effect, KARMA, operates in such a way that one’s lot in the succeeding
life will be moral consequence of deeds performed in this life. Liberation
from the cycle of rebirths is reached by man’s attaining complete realization
of the nature of the self, namely, identity with the Supreme Being. The
highest spiritual goal of the Hindu is escape from the cycle of history.
Hinduism
regards human history as a lower level of, experience, for the essential
self of man is never involved in the affairs of this world of phenomena.
How does Hinduism reconcile this metaphysical position with its extremely
detailed regulation of individual and social life? Chiefly by its teaching
regarding the four ends of man. The expression of man’s natural instincts
(KAMA), material prosperity (ARTHA), and the ethical life (DHARMA), all
pertain to the lower, empirical life. Spiritual liberation (MOKSHA) pertain
to the higher level of reality, man’s essential self.
Hinduism’s
concern with political institutions and the course of human history is
thus a secondary concern at most. This view of history is conductive to
the development of a secular state. That is, the ultimate philosophical
and religious values of Hinduism do not require a Hindu state, or any political
kind of a state, or any particular kind of a state, for that matter. At
this point the contrast with Islam
is
quite marked.
(from
‘India as a Secular State’ by D.E.Smith )
HOROSCOPES
Horoscope
is a diagram of the heavens showing the relative position of planets and
the signs of the zodiac, as at the moment of a person’s birth, used esp.
to predict events in a person’s life; a prediction or advice for the future,
based on such a diagram. The signs of the zodiac are used in astrology.
The signs are: Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo,
Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius and Capricorn.
Aries
- the first sign of the zodiac, represented by a ram (male sheep); a person
born between March 21 and April 20. Taurus - the second sign of the zodiac,
represented by a bull; a person born between April 21 and May 22.
Gemini
- the third sign of the zodiac, represented by a set of twins (two people
born together); a person born between May 23 and June 23.
Cancer
- the forth sign of the zodiac, represented by a crab (sea animal); a person
born between June 22 and July 22.
Leo
- the third sign of the zodiac, represented by a lion; a person born between
July 23 and August 23.
Virgo
- the sixth sign of the zodiac, represented by a young girl; a person born
between August 23 and September 22.
Libra
- the seventh sign of the zodiac, represented by a pair of scales; a person
born between September 23 and October 22.
Scorpio
- the eighth sign of the zodiac, represented by a scorpion; a person born
between October 23 and November 21.
Sagittarius
- the ninth sign of the zodiac, represented by an animal that is half horse
half human shooting an arrow; a person born between November 22 and December
22.
Capricorn
- the tenth sign of the zodiac, represented by a goat; a person born between
December 23 and January 20.
Aquarius
- the eleventh sign of the zodiac, represented by a person pouring water;
a person born between January 21 and February 19.
Pisces
- the twelfth sign of the zodiac, represented by two fish; a person born
between February 20 and March 20.
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practice
the reading of the following words and say what Russian words help
to guess their meanings:
cards,
routine, horoscope, busyness, moment, personal, risk, impressed, financial,
television, partner, problems, sum, surprised, situation, hesitation, football,
chance.
Give
the initial forms of the following words:
impressed,
problems, changing, working, smoking, drinking, looking, exercises, surprised,
taking.
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
important,
personal, opportunity, financial, television,
venture,
partner, possible, expensive, decision, carefully,
particular,
loser.
Prove
that the words in capital letters are nouns:
have
some financial PROBLEMS, in your working ROUTINE, to win a television QUIZ.
Do
you now the following words?
success,
important, personal, slight, health, routine, quiz, outdoor, exercises,
parties, venture,, offers, job, chance, diamond, overeat, decision, hesitation,
discourage, carefully, step.
Translate
the following into Russian:
There
may be opportunity to travel. There is a chance to win a television quiz.
Miss your chance. Without hesitation.
Text. Horoscope 1
ARIES
21 March - 20 April
You
may have an opportunity to change your place of work,
but the change may be for the worse. You should think
hard before taking a decision. You shouldn’t
tell anyone about possible offers of a new job.
TAURUS
21 April - 22 May
This
is a week of success in busyness. You may
have to risk your money. Don’t hesitate! You
may not have another chance like that, and you must take it!
GEMINI
(Twins) 23 May - 21 June
You
may meet some one you’ll be impressed by. Be careful!
You should spend more time at home with your family.
CANCER
22 June - 22 July
You
may have some financial problems at the beginning
of the week. Don’t be discouraged! You’ll have to learn how to be
good loser, but you shouldn’t lose hope. Things will improve towards
the end of the week.
LEO
(Lion) 23 July - 22 August
There
may be opportunity to travel. You should take it without hesitation.
You may want to talk to someone about it. This is something
you mustn’t do because your chance may be lost.
VIRGO
23 August - 22 September
Someone
may tell you that there is a chance to win a television quiz. You
shouldn’t believe it! Quizzes are not for you. But at the weekend
you may be lucky at cards. You shouldn’t miss your chance.
LIBRA
(Scales or Balance) 23 September - 22 October
You
shouldn’t play football. You may have an injury. A drive to the country
and a walk in a wood will do you good, but
you shouldn’t leave expensive things in your car. You may be sorry!
SCORPIO
23 October - 21 November
There
may be problems at work, but you shouldn’t take them close to heart. The
situation will improve soon. You won’t even have to put in
any particular effort.
SAGITTARIUS
22 November - 22 December
This
is an important moment in your personal
life. You shouldn’t change anything if you
want to be happy. Think carefully before taking important
steps.
CAPRICORN
23 December - 20 January
You
may have some slight health problems. Don’t overeat!
You should give up smoking and drinking. A holiday at
the seaside would put you right.
AQUARIUS
21 January - 19 February
If
you find a large sum of money or a diamond
ring don’t be surprised. This week begins the period
of luck. It is a good time to begin business venture,
and you should begin looking for a good partner.
PISCES
(Fish) 20 February - 20 March
There
may be changing in your working routine. You may have to do
more then you used to. You shouldn’t work
too much. You
should
leave time for outdoor exercises and parties.
Text. Horoscope 2
ARIES
21 March - 20 April
This
week begins the period of luck. It is a good time to begin business
venture, and you should begin looking for a good partner.
TAURUS
21 April - 22 May
There
may be opportunity to travel. You may not have another chance like
that, and you must take it!
GEMINI
(Twins) 23 May - 21 June This is a week of success in busyness. You
should leave time for outdoor exercises and parties.
CANCER
22 June - 22 July
There
may be changing in your working routine. You shouldn’t work too much.
LEO
(Lion) 23 July - 22 August
There
may be problems at work, but you shouldn’t take them close to heart.
At the weekend you may be lucky at cards.
VIRGO
23 August - 22 September
You
may have some slight health problems. A holiday at the seaside would
put you right. Don’t overeat!
LIBRA
(Scales or Balance) 23 September - 22 October
You
may have to do more then you used to. Things will improve towards
the end of the week.
SCORPIO
23 October - 21 November
You
may have some financial problems at the beginning of the week. You
should spend more time at home with your family.
SAGITTARIUS
22 November - 22 December
You
may have some slight health problems. The situation will improve
soon. You won’t even have to put in any particular effort.
CAPRICORN
23 December - 20 January
You
may have to risk your money. You should think hard before taking
a decision.
AQUARIUS
21 January - 19 February
This
is an important moment in your personal life. You shouldn’t miss
your chance. Think carefully before taking important steps.
PISCES
(Fish) 20 February - 20 March
You
may have an opportunity to change your place of work. You should give up
smoking and drinking. Be careful!
SOME TERMS
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Practise
the reading of the following words and say what Russian words
help to guess their meanings:
limits,
abstraction, image, atheist, philosophy, atheism, mystery, human, products,
chance, agnostic, doctrine, agnosticism, truck, controlled, determined,
fate, derived, fatalist, theory, fatalism
Give
the initial forms of the following words:
theorizing,
least, determined
State
to which part of speech the following words belong:
closely,
deity, minority, belligerently, figment, imagination, completely, irrevocably,
nonexistant, atheist, atheism, reasonable, existence, purposeless, needless,
benefactor, incidentally
Do
you now the following words?
to
approach, limit, abstraction, supernatural, to worship, to accept, deity,
minority, to insist, belligerently, image, figment, imagination, hence,
irrevocably, nonexistant, reasonable, existence, suprem, mystery, to fathom,
purposeless, hope, to derive, to dart, huge, truck, bend, to explain, needless,
to snuff, innocent, blind, cause, benefactor, humanity, event, to determine,
fate, incidentally, to derive, to predict
TEXT
Is
there a God? Nothing so closely approaches the outer limits of abstraction
as theorizing about a supernatural and supreme being. Many of us worship,
most of us at least accept, some form of deity. Do you belong to the minority
who insists, often belligerently, that man makes God in his own image,
that God is a figment of the imagination and hence completely, irrevocably
nonexistant? Then you are an atheist and your philosophy is called atheism.
The word is from Greek ‘A’ (without) and ‘THEOS’ (god).
To
many other thinkers it seems more reasonable to say that existence or nonexistence
of a supreem being is one mystery the human mind will never fathom. How
did the world come into being? How did life begin? Is there a father who
looks after his children, or are we the products of purposeless chance?
Do you answer these questions by saying that no one knows and no one can
never hope to know? Then you are an agnostic, and your doctrine is called
agnosticism. The word, too, is from the Greek, derived from AGNOSTOS, “not
knowing”.
Why
did that young child dart across the roadway just as a huge truck rounded
the bend? How do you explain the needless snuffing out of an innocent life?
Is it due to blind chance? To cause and effect? Why should some great benefactor
of humanity be cut off in his prime? Are such events controlled by accident?
Or are they determined by fate? (Fate, incidentally, is derived from
the Latin FATUS,(‘spoken’ or ‘predicted’)
If
you believe that everything that happens is predetermined, foreordained,
written down, as it were on the far-off pages of some mighty
volume,
you are a fatalist and your theory is called fatalism.
(from
‘30 days to a more powerful vocabulary’ by W.Funk and N.Lewis)
APPENDIX
KEY TO AFTER-TEXT EXERCISES
Islam
Abstract
Kurban Bairami = Muslim Festival of Sacrifice. During this four-day Muslim holiday many Turkish families sacrifice a lamb, sheep or bullock on the first day. To commemorate those who have died during the year a sacrifice is made on the day before Byram. In 1986 a lamb for sacrifice cost about 30,000 TL, half a month’s wages for a laborer on our site. The ram sacrificed for the completion of Elmali Viaduct cost 250,000 TL (110 pounds) and had been washed and made presentable.
Secular
state
1.
state,
religion, secular, conception, individual, represent, relationships.
2. Abstract
The
concept of the Secular State. The term “secular state”
is commonly used in present-day India to describe the relationship
which exists, or which ought to exist, between the state
and religion. The working definition which I would suggest
is as follows: The secular state is
a state which guarantees individual and corporate freedom
of religion, deals with the individual as a citizen
irrespective of his religion, is not constitutionally
connected to a particular religion nor does it seek either to promote
or interfere with religion. The three sets of relations
are:
1.
religion and the individual (freedom of religion)
2.
the state and the individual (citizenship)
3.
the state and religion (separation of state and religion).
Glossary
Anglican
- (a member) of the Church of England, a branch of the Christian religion
Bible
- 1) (a copy of) the holy book of Christians, consisting of the Old Testament
and the New Testament 2) (a copy of) the holy book of the Jews; the Old
Testament
Buddhism
- a religion of east and central Asia growing out of the teaching of Gautama
Buddha that one must become free of human desires in order to escape from
suffering.
Christ
- (Jesus Christ, Jesus) - the man on whose life, death, and teachings Christianity
is based, considered by Christians to be the son of God
Christianity
- the religion based on the life and teachings of Christ.
Confucianism
- the system of ethics, education, and statesmanship taught by confucius
and his disciples, stressing love for humanity, ancestor worship, reverence
for parents, and harmony in thought and conduct
destiny
- 1) fate, what must happen and cannot be changed or controlled
2)
the power that decides the course of events, thought of as a person or
a force
Father
- 1) a title of respect for a priest, esp. in the Roman Catholic Church;
2) /our, the / God
Hindu
- a person whose religion is Hinduism
Hinduism
- - the chief religion of India which includes belief in destiny and reincarnation
horoscope
- a written or spoken description of someone’s character, life, and future,
which is gained by knowing the positions of the stars or planets at the
time of his/her birth and the effects these are said to have
Islam
- the Muslim religion, started by Mohammed
Jew
- a member of a people, whose religion is Judaism, who lived in ancient
times in the land of Israel, some of whom now live in the modern state
of Israel and others in various countries throughout the world
Judaism
- the religion of the Jews; the religion based on the Old Testament of
the Bible, the Talmud and the later teaching of the RABBIS
Koran
- the holy book of the Muslims
messiah
- a great religious leader, arriving suddenly to save the world, esp. Christ
in the Christian religion or the man still expected by the Jews
Muslim
(also Moslem, Mohammedan, Muhammadan) - a follower of the religion started
by Mohhammed; a believer in Islam
Nonconformist
- (a member) of any of several Christian religious groups which have separated
from the Church of England
nonconformist
- (off or a being) a person who does not follow generally accepted way(s)
of living, thinking, etc.
Orthodox
Church - any of several Christian churches esp. in eastern Europe
padre
- a priest, esp. one in the Armed Forces chaplain - a priest or other religious
minister responsible for religious needs of a club, a part of the armed
forces, a hospital
parish
- an area in the care of a single priest and served by one main church
priest
- 1) (in the christian church, and esp. in the Roman catholic Church) a
specially trained person, usu. a man, who performs various religious duties
and ceremonies for a group of worshippers 2) (also priestess /fem./) -
a specially-trained person with religious duties and responsibilities in
certain non-Christian religions
USAGE
PRIEST is a general word for someone who is in charge of the religious
worship of a group of Christian people, but the word is used especially
in the Roman Catholic Church. A priest in the Church of England is
called a clergyman, and in the Nonconformist churches the usual word is
minister. A priest who is responsible for the religious needs of large
organization, such as a university or hospital, is a chaplain or in the
armed forces, a padre.
rabbi
- a Jewish priest
reincarnate
- to cause to return to life in a new body, after death
reincarnation
- 1) the act or fact of being reincarnated 2) the
person
or animal that results
Shinto
- the native religion of Japan, primarily a system of nature and ancestor
worship. Also Shintoism.
Yoga
- 1) a Hindu philosophy which teaches control of the mind, senses, and
body in order to reach union with God; 2) a branch of yoga (hatha yoga)
which consysts of a system of exersises to gain control over the mind and
esp. the body
yogi
- a person who practises yoga, esp. one who teaches it to others
zodiac
- 1) an imaginary belt through space along which the sun, the moon and
the nearest planet appear to travel and which is divided into 12 equal
parts (signs), each named after a group (constellation) of stars
which were once in them; 2) a circular representation of this with pictures
and names for each of 12 signs of the zodiac, esp. as used by people who
believe in the influence of the stars on people’s character and fate
- see also HOROSCOPE
USAGE
The signs of the zodiac are used in astrology. The signs are: Aquarius,
Pisces, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius
and Capricorn
Zoroaster
- flourished 6th century B.C., Persian religious teacher. Also called
Zarathustra.
Zoroastianism,
also Zoroastrism - an Iranian religion, founded c600 B.C. by Zoroaster,
based on beliefs in a supreme deity, Ahura Mazda, and a cosmic struggle
between a spirit of good, Spenta Mainyu, and a spirit of evil, Angra Mainyu.
Also called Mazdaism.