Horse

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Of all the animals, the horse has probably most closely shared in human adventures and has been  most intimately allied with human progress. For thousands of years, the horse has participated in  the pleasures, the dangers, and the hard work that have marked human life. Perhaps because of  this long relationship, the horse holds a special place in mankind's affection.

No one knows exactly when people and horses first became companions. Some historians  believe that probably people hunted early horses as they did other game animals. Drawings,  engravings, and sculptures of horses that date back many thousands of years may have been  made by hunters and medicine men as offerings to the gods for a good hunt. Then perhaps people  recognized the advantage of the horse's fleetness, tamed the horse, and used it to pursue other  animals for food. When food became scarce in one area, the horse helped people move and  settle in other areas that were more productive.

Gradually people found more and more uses for the horse and became increasingly dependent  upon it. As this dependence grew, the horse became a partner in human life. It shared the dangers  of war, the satisfactions of peace, the pomp and splendors of knighthood, and the sufferings and  privations of exploring and settling new lands and wresting a living from the soil. The horse also  made possible many pleasures. It carried people in hunting fields, in polo matches, and in races. It  drew the wagons for circuses and traveling players, then often performed in the acts they  presented. Pride in this magnificent beast has prompted people to show it off in horse shows, and  admiration for the animal's beauty and grace have inspired its portrayal in art and literature.
Until the early 1900s the horse was an integral part of everyday life. Then machines began to  perform many of the jobs that horses had done, and the population of horses especially in Europe  and North America dropped drastically. For example, in 1915 there were more than 21 million  horses in the United States, but by 1955 their number had dropped to only a little more than 3  million. Although no census has been taken since the late 1950s, a special survey published in  1966 indicated that there had been a great increase in the population of light horses. It is  conjectured that this increase results from the growing interest in riding for pleasure and in  breeding fine horses.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

The horse is a beautiful and utilitarian beast. Both its beauty and its utility result from the  relationship among all its body parts in form and in function. The general shape and appearance of  a horse is called conformation. Conformation includes the form and proportion of various parts of  the animal's body and the way they fit together to give overall balance and structural smoothness.  Thus balance or proportion of the horse's body is important because each part has a functional  relationship to the rest of the parts.

Although breeders have developed horses of many different colors, sizes, and special attributes,  all of the animals have a appearance. In general, the horse is a relatively large animal that weighs  about 1,000 pounds or more. It stands about 5 1/2 feet high at the shoulder and is about 9 feet  long from the tip of its nose to its tail. It has a long, muscular neck; a large chest; a rather straight  back; and powerful hindquarters. Its legs are strong and comparatively slender. In motion, the  hind legs provide the propelling force and the front legs act primarily as supports.

The Horse's Head and Body

The horse's head and neck make up about two fifths of the total length of the animal. The head is  held naturally at about a 45 degree angle to the neck. The head and neck act as a counterbalance  as the center of
gravity shifts when the animal is in motion.

The ears are proportionate to the head, neither too small nor so large that they look mulish. They  are held upright and turned forward when the horse is alert. The horse can move his ears freely to  pick up sounds from various directions.

The eyes are larger than those of any other land animal, and the horse has excellent long-range  vision both at night and in the daytime. Each eye can see things above and below, behind as well  as in front. A horse's eyes see things separately. An object may be seen first with one eye, then  with the other. Stationary objects, especially small ones, seen in this way seem to jump, and the  horse may become frightened. Sometimes to keep the animal from being startled horsemen put  pads called blinders, or blinkers, near the horse's eyes to limit vision.

The nose has wide, flaring nostrils. A horse must get all its air through its nasal passages. It does  not get extra breath through its mouth as do cows, dogs, sheep, and many other kinds of  domestic animals. Even on a very hot day, or when the horse has been racing or working hard, it  never pants with its tongue out. The reason for this probably is that a horse's soft palate forms a  musclelike curtain that separates the mouth cavity from the breathing passages except when the  horse is swallowing.

The horse has large jaws, and the teeth are large and strong. A mature male horse has 40 teeth, a  mature female has 36. The front teeth, or incisors, are separated from the rear teeth, molars or  grinders, by a wide and sensitive space, or bar. The bar forms the space into which the bit fits.  Male horses also have two extra teeth called tushes. Horsemen examine a horse's teeth to  estimate the animal's age. The teeth grow longer and at a more oblique angle with age, and the  surfaces wear away.

The horse's body is large and sleek. The wide chest contains the huge lungs and heart that are  necessary equipment for an animal that must have great endurance for running or enormous  power for pulling loads. The back is strong, well muscled, and rigid enough to provide the legs  with freedom to move easily. A back that curves downward at the center is called swayback; one  that curves upward is called roach, or hog, back.

The Horse's Legs and Feet

The legs are long, strong, and comparatively slender. The front legs support weight, help maintain  body balance and stability, and contribute to the forward movement of the animal. The part of the  leg called the knee by horsemen is comparable to the wrist joint in man. The hind legs are heavily  muscled to provide the propelling force in running and the pushing force for pulling a heavy load.  The central point for these forces lies in the hock joint, and this joint bears the burden for all  forward movement. It is comparable to the ankle joint in man.

A horse's foot is really a single toe, and the hoof is a thick toenail. The tip of the toe bone fits  within the hoof, and the heel angles upward. The bone is so porous that it looks somewhat like  pumice stone. The toe bone and two other bones make up the horse's foot. All fit within and are  protected by the hoof.

The hoof is a box-like part made up of the same kind of material as that in a man's fingernail. The  part of the hoof that we see when the horse's feet are on the ground is the wall. The wall protects  the front and sides of the foot. It is longest and thickest in the front and decreases toward the  back of the foot. Horseshoes are put on the under-part of the wall to help protect it from  extensive wear. The shoes must be changed and the hoofs trimmed once a month. A hoof grows  about one-third inch in four weeks.

When the horse's foot is raised, the sole and the frog can be seen. The sole covers most of the  undersurface of the foot and is arched to protect the bones and soft parts of the foot above it.  The frog is a soft elastic section shaped like a triangle with its base at the heel and its apex  pointing forward. It is a shock absorber, cushioning the jarring impact that occurs every time the  animal's foot comes in contact with the ground.

A HORSE'S LIFE HISTORY

Foals may be born at any time of the year. But many horse breeders prefer that birth take place in  the springtime. Foals born in winter need more stable room as well as more food and care than  do those born in milder weather. Foals born in spring can roam outdoors and nibble grass to  supplement their diet. No matter what time of the year a foal is born, however, its first birthday is  recorded as being the first day of January after its birth. So, New Year's Day is the official  birthday of every horse.

The Birth of a Foal

The gestation period the length of time a mare carries the foal inside her body is usually 11 to 12  months. The actual birth process takes only a short time usually about 15 to 30 minutes. Normally  a foal is born with its front feet first. One leg is extended; the other leg is slightly bent; and the  head is thrust between the two legs. The newborn foal rests quietly for about 10 or 15 minutes,  then tries to get up and is soon able to stand. Within a few hours after birth the foal is able to frisk  about quite well on its gangly legs.

The legs of a newborn foal are almost as long as those of the mare, and grow only slightly during  the horse's lifetime. The rest of the animal's body develops and the muscles of the legs become  large and strong, but the big bones of the legs remain about the same size. Though it usually has  grown to full height several years before, a horse is considered to be mature at seven years of  age.

The Young Horse

A newborn foal begins to nurse as soon as it can stand up after birth. For the first six months of its  life it depends mostly on the mare's milk and on grain supplied by its owner for nourishment. It  begins to supplement its diet by nibbling grass and clover, sometimes spreading its long legs wide  somewhat like a giraffe. By the time the foal is six months old, it has grown enough to make  grazing easier. Then it is weaned, or taken away from the mare. The process of weaning is begun  by moving the mare to a new stall, away from the foal, so that the separation is final. If the foal  sees, hears, or smells the mare again, the process must be started over.
Within a week or ten days after birth, a foal has two upper and two lower incisor teeth. At a year  old, it has six upper teeth and six lower ones. All of these are milk teeth, much shorter and smaller  than the permanent ones. The horse begins to get its permanent teeth when it is about 2 1/2 years  old, but does not have all of them until it is about five years old. It is then said to have a mouth.

The Training of a Horse

A horse's training begins almost immediately after it is born. Trainers handle the foal and brush its  thick, fuzzy coat frequently. By the time the animal is a month old, it has learned to wear a halter.  As a yearling, it learns to respond to reins, and at two years old it is saddle-trained. When it is  three, the colt begins specialized training for whatever career has been chosen for it perhaps as a  riding horse, polo horse, circus horse, or racehorse. But usually it is not required to do exhaustive  work until it is about five years old.

One year of a horse's life is equal to about three years of a man's life. Seven years of a horse's life  would be comparable to 21 years in a man's life. Horses cease to be useful for most kinds of  work when they are about 23 or 24 years old, though they still may be able to do certain kinds of  light work. The life span of a horse is considered to be 25 to 30 years,
but some horses may live  to be 40 or more.

THE HORSE BREEDS

The animal we know today as the horse is the result of centuries of selective breeding. By careful  selection breeders throughout history have developed various kinds of horses with a wide variety  of characteristics to suit many different needs. The Great Horse of the Middle Ages, for example,  was bred for size and strength to carry a heavily armored knight and his weapons into battle. The  massive horses of such breeds are often called blooded. The Arabs bred lithe desert horses that  were small and swift. These animals are often referred to as blooded.

Cross-breeding of hot  blooded and cold blooded horses for certain characteristics produced breeds ranging from riding  horses to draft horses.

The Thoroughbred is considered by many to be the highpoint of elegance and fine selective  breeding. Many persons mistakenly apply the name Thoroughbred to any purebred horse. But a  Thoroughbred is a distinct breed of running horses that traces its ancestry through the male line  directly back to three Eastern stallions: the Byerly Turk, the Darley Arabian, and the Godolphin  Barb (or Godolphin Arabian). These horses had been imported into England before 1750 and  were used by breeders to develop the famous Thoroughbred racing horse.

For convenience the breeds of horses are often divided into three major groups: (1) ponies, (2)  heavy, or draft, horses, and (3) light horses.

Color and Markings of the Horse

A person buying a horse for pleasure riding may choose the animal for the color and markings  entirely according to individual taste. Horse breeders, however, consider color an important point  in judging the value of a horse. Some breeds are required to have certain colors and patterns in  order to be registered. Registries for such breeds as the Appaloosa and Pinto, for example, may  not accept horses with undesirable colors or patterns.

Color is one of the most conspicuous features of a horse and is often the basis for description,  such as bay, chestnut, or gray. These colors, however, differ somewhat from the usual conception  of the color. Common colors used for horses include the following:

Black. All hairs are completely black, with no lighter color appearing.
Brown. All hairs are brown, but may be so dark they look black to most people. The true color  shows in hairs around the nose and eyes or wherever the coat is thin.

Bay. Hairs may be brown but show auburn or red shades; mane, tail, and stockings are black.

Chestnut. Hairs are the same colors as the bay, but mane, tail, and stockings are the coat color  or lighter.

Dun. Hairs are dull grayish-yellow or dull grayish-gold, but mane and tail are black.

Gray. Hairs are black or brown at birth, but lighten with age and may be almost white at  maturity.

Palomino. Hairs are gold or yellow, but mane and tail are white.

Roan. Strawberry roans have a chestnut body color with white hairs interspersed. Blue roans  have a black or brown body color with white hairs interspersed.

White face markings and leg markings may occur on horses of any coat color. The markings of  the Appaloosa and Pinto horses, however, are distinctive. Appaloosa horses are often called  horses. They may have light coat patterns with dark spots or dark coat patterns with light spots.  Pinto or paint horses have coats with large, splashy patterns. Brown and white patterns are called  skewbald, and black and white ones are piebald.

The Lipizzan

Many people consider the Lipizzan, or Lipizzaner, the most beautiful of all horses, the royalty of  the horse breeds. Anyone who sees these magnificent animals cannot help but be impressed by  their grace and dignity.

Perhaps the best known horses in the world are the Lipizzans of the Spanish Riding School of  Vienna. Here, perfectly trained horses perform difficult movements on and above the ground with  the seemingly effortless grace of ballet dancers. These are not the artificial actions that are  sometimes learned by horses for the circus or trick-riding rings. All the feats are based on the  natural movements of a horse, those done by a playful horse frisking about in high spirits in an  open pasture. Years of careful training perfect each of the movements done by the Lipizzan.
is almost synonymous with horse in the minds of many people, and it is true that those chosen for  performance at the Spanish Riding School are white. But some Lipizzans may be chestnut, bay,  or roan. Even the white horses are not born white. All are dark at birth and become white only at  about the age of 4 years or as late as 10 years.

Lipizzans mature much more slowly than do other breeds of horses. For the first four years of the  colt's life it runs free with the herd. Then a trainer, who has been specially trained, is chosen for  the colt. He assumes complete responsibility for its care and training, and no one else is allowed  to touch it.

Schooling for the Lipizzan begins with a two-year initial training period. Usually only stallions are  chosen. For the first three months, horse and trainer work on the rudiments of discipline, and the  horse learns to trust the trainer completely. Schooling for the remainder of the two years consists  chiefly of exercises that keep the stallion flexible and supple. When the Lipizzan is 6 years old,  training for performing figures begins. For the next two years the horse undergoes intensive  individual schooling that will make him a star performer in the riding school. He will learn to  balance perfectly on his hind legs in the levade, be stately in a cadenced quadrille, leap high above  the ground in a courbette, and soar suspended in space in the capriole. For about the next 20  years, the Lipizzan's life consists almost entirely of practice and performance. When the horse can  no longer perform in the show ring, he becomes an instructor, teaching fledgling riders who hope  to become masters of this special art of horsemanship.

THE GAITS OF THE HORSE

A horse's gait is the way in which the animal moves its legs and places its hoofs to obtain forward  movement. There are various kinds of gaits. Each produces a different kind of ride for the  horseman, and each may be used for a different purpose. Each gait also has a specific cadence or  rhythmic beat. The cadence is the rhythm of the sound heard when the horse's hoofs strike the  ground.

The horse has three natural gaits. These are the walk, the trot, and the gallop all of which are  illustrated and described. The canter, furthermore, is a collected or restrained form of the gallop.  It gives greater but less forward motion to the horse than does the gallop. Other kinds of gaits are  known as artificial gaits, which are usually variations of the natural gaits. Artificial gaits are  obtained by selective breeding or by special training of certain breeds of horses.

The rack and the slow gait are artificial gaits. The slow gait has several forms including the fox  trot, the broken pace, the running walk, and the amble. The rack is a fast gait.

Sometimes horsemen speak of five-gaited horses or three-gaited horses. Although many horses  can be taught to perform either gait, the American saddle horse and the Tennessee walking horse  are exceptional at performing these gaits. The five-gaited American saddle horse can do a walk, a  trot, a canter, one of the slow gaits, and a rack. The three-gaited Tennessee walking horse has a  flat-footed walk, a running walk, and a slow canter.

These artificial gaits were developed by Southern planters in colonial times. They give a smoother  ride for the horseman than either the trot or pace, and the rider can spend longer hours in the  saddle. The rack is, however, tiring for the horse. A western horse's gaits include a walk, a slow  gait, and a lope, which is a form of the canter.

HORSEMANSHIP THE ART OF RIDING

Almost everyone has seen at the movies or on television graceful riders on saddle horses  cantering along bridle paths or cowboys seated with careless ease on mustangs loping off into the  sunset. It looks quite easy. But in the art of riding, as in any other kind of art, it takes an enormous  amount of practice and patience to become a master. The thrill of being a disciplined rider on a  disciplined horse, however, is well worth the effort.
An observant movie and television viewer will have noted that the equipment of the horse on the  bridle path was different from that of the mustang. The novice rider will need to know something  about a horse's equipment before he can use it. A horse's gear is called tack, which includes the  saddle and the bridle. It is possible to ride a horse without either saddle or bridle, and sometimes  student riders are required to do this to develop balance and confidence. For most riding,  however, gear is used.

The tack for riding includes, in addition to the saddle and bridle, a halter, lead shank (a rope with  a clip on the end) and, if the climate is cold, a stable blanket. The purpose of tack is to provide  the rider with a means by which he can control the horse and also to provide him with a seat on  the horse's back.

There are basically two major classes of tack English and western and there are many varieties in  each of the classes. Horsemen choose their tack carefully to suit the type of riding they do. The  choice will also depend upon how the horse is trained.

Some Types of Saddles

Many varieties of saddles have been developed, but all are built in basically the same way. The  frame, often called the tree, of the saddle is made of wood, steel, or a combination of the two.  The rigid frame is well padded and covered with leather. One or more wide straps called girths  are attached. A girth passes under the horse's body and is fastened to the opposite side. A leather  strap for the stirrup is suspended from each side of the saddle. The flap, a wide, flat piece of  leather, hangs between the stirrup strap and the horse's side.

Saddles are contoured on the underside to fit a horse's back and on the top side to fit the rider's  body. A saddle should be properly fitted to the horse so a rider's weight is centered on the horse  but not directly on the
withers and the spine.

English saddles are often called flat saddles because they are so gently contoured that the rider's  seat is almost flat. There are three basic types of flat saddles: (1) the forward seat or jumping  saddle, (2) the modified forward saddle, and (3) the dressage saddle. The forward seat or  jumping saddle has flaps that extend well forward over the horse's shoulders. This saddle is  preferred by many riders for open jumping. In the modified forward saddle the flaps do not  extend quite so far forward as they do on the jumping saddle. This saddle is used for ordinary  riding, for jumping, and for hunting. The dressage saddle has a deeper seat than do the other  saddles.

The western saddle has a deep seat, a high pommel from which the saddle horn rises, and a high,  fanlike cantle. Rings and rawhide saddle strings are attached to hold a cowboy's equipment.  There are several different types of western saddles including parade saddles, cutting saddles, and  roping saddles. Each is designed for the special use its name implies. Western saddles have little  padding, so a heavy blanket or thick pad is usually placed under them.

Bridles the Horse's Headgear

The bridle includes all the equipment a horse wears on his head: the bits, curb chains, crownpiece  and browband, cheekpiece, and reins. There are several different kinds of bridles.

English bridles are known by the type of bit used. The snaffle bit and the pelham bit are the most  common. The snaffle is a simple, jointed bit that works on the corners of the horse's mouth. The  pelham has two sets of rings for the reins and fits on the bars of the horse's mouth. Many horses  used for hunting and jumping wear snaffle bridles with running martingales. The reins run through  the martingale and the bit and act on
the bars instead of on the corners of the mouth.

The western bridle usually is fitted with some type of curb bit. The western curb bit, however, has  longer shanks than the English and has no curb chain.

The Art of Riding

A novice soon learns that one of the basic skills in the art of riding is balance. A horseman stays  on his mount by balance, not by gripping his mount with his legs or by using the reins as lifelines.  To achieve and maintain his balance, the rider's center of gravity must be directly over that of the  horse. The horse's center of gravity is in direct line with the girth of the saddle when the horse is  standing still.

The Rider's Position

Horsemen call a rider's position on the horse his. The rider sits erect in the deepest part of the  saddle, which is over the stirrup leathers. In the flat saddle, the knees are bent and pushed ahead  of the stirrup leathers. This places the angle of the thigh parallel to the angle of the horse's  shoulder blade. When properly seated, a rider's ear, hip, and heel are in line, and the tip of the toe  is directly under the point of the knee. His arms are relaxed but held so that a straight line could  be drawn from the tip of the elbow along the forehand, wrists, and reins to the horse's bit.  Illustrations with this article show the position of the rider on the horse at various gaits.

Communication and Control

A horse trained for riding has been taught the of the aids. A rider must also learn this language so  he can communicate with his mount. There are two kinds of aids natural and artificial. The natural  aids include the voice, the action of the hands on the reins, the use of the legs and heels, the use of  the back, and the distribution of the rider's weight. The artificial aids include the whip, the spur,  and various types of equipment such as side reins and martingales.

The reins are one line of communication. A horse is trained to go in the direction of the tension put  on the rein. Although a skilled horseman uses the reins for many effects, the novice uses them for  two basic ones: (1) to direct, and (2) to lead. If the rider carries his right rein slightly to the right  and pulls back (direct) or to the side (lead), the horse turns in the direction of the pull. If the rider  pulls both reins straight back, the horse slows down or stops. Every rider must learn to keep very  light contact on the horse's mouth through a stretched rein. A slight increase of tension directs the  horse, and immediate relaxation of tension when the horse begins to respond is the horse's reward  for obedience. Continued tension punishes the animal and may confuse him.

The reins indicate the direction of movement (turn, go forward, or back), but the leg aids indicate  that motion should start. The horse moves away from the pressure of a leg or heel. When a rider  applies pressure only with his left leg, the horse moves his haunches to the right. When pressure is  applied with both legs, the horse begins to move forward.
The rider uses his weight to help the horse keep in balance and also to indicate a change of  direction. A rider on a well-trained horse has only to step down in one stirrup and the horse will  turn in that direction. When a rider shifts his weight backward slightly the horse will slow down.  The rider uses his voice to encourage, to praise, or to admonish his mount.

Mounting and Dismounting

There are four phases for mounting a horse properly. In dismounting the procedures are reversed.  When the rider swings his right foot back over the horse he bears his weight on his hands, brings  his feet together, then kicks his left foot out of the stirrup. He drops to the ground, turning slightly  so that he lands facing the front of the horse. He then transfers the reins to his right hand.

The Western Seat

Western riding is primarily a working form of riding, and the horses are differently trained. The  horse works on a loose rein, and the rider holds the reins in one hand and directs the horse with a  neck rein. Horses used for western-type riding are especially trained to respond to neck reining.  When the rider wishes to go to the right, he moves the hand holding the reins to the right. The  horse feels the touch of the left rein on his neck and turns in the opposite direction to the right.  The touch of the right rein brings a move to the left.

The western rider sits deeply and firmly in the saddle. His aids are his weight and his legs. The  stirrup straps are longer than those of a flat saddle, and the horseman rides with his knees only  slightly bent. He maintains his center of gravity over the horse, however, and his feet are not  pushed forward.

CARING FOR A HORSE

The horse, like any other kind of animal, responds to proper care and good treatment. Caring for  a horse requires considerable time and patience, however, and only persons who are willing to  expend the time and have adequate space should consider keeping a horse at home. Many  horsemen who enjoy owning their own mounts keep them at professional boarding stables to  ensure proper care.

Housing a Horse

The minimum size box stall for a horse is ten feet by ten feet. Stalls must be large enough so that  the horse can lie down and get up without injuring itself and can turn around comfortably. They  also must have areas where bedding, feed, hay, and equipment can be stored. The walls of the  stall should be constructed of two-inch-thick oak boards to the height of five feet. Above this,  heavy wire or lighter boards can be used. The flooring can be of clay, sand, or cinders. At least  three inches of bedding should be spread on the floor. Bedding soaks up moisture and provides  the horse with a clean, dry bed.

Mangers, racks, or other containers for hay and grain should be placed on the walls at heights  that are convenient for the horse to reach. Water should be available day and night.

One of the most time-consuming of all the chores necessary for the proper care of a horse is  cleaning the stable. The stall and bedding must be cleaned daily. The bedding must be removed  and replaced periodically.

Feeding a Horse

The amount and kind of feed a horse needs depends upon the size of the animal, his condition,  and the kind of work that is demanded of him. For a pastured horse, the grass he nibbles may  provide sufficient food. But most horses, especially working horses, need supplementary feed for  energy.

Feed consists of hay supplemented by grain rations. Hay is a substitute for the pasture grass.  Grain is a concentrated food and is given in small amounts several times a day. Water is also an  important part of the horse's diet, but grain swells when wet so the water should always be given  first. Many horsemen follow the routine of small but frequent feedings in this sequence: water, hay,  grain.

Grooming a Horse

A horse should be thoroughly groomed at least once a day. A well-groomed horse looks  attractive, but grooming has a far more important function. It improves the animal's circulation and  helps tone the muscles. So, vigorous grooming is necessary.

Grooming tools include a cloth, a brush of rough straw, a soft body brush, a rubber or plastic  currycomb, and a hoof-pick. All parts of the horse's body must be groomed. The cloth is used  first to remove surface dust and dirt. The soft brush cleans the face and lower legs where the hair  is short. The currycomb and rough brush are used where the hair is long. The horse's feet need  special care to prevent infections. They should be cleaned every day and each time the horse is  ridden. A hoof-pick is used to pick out hard materials such as packed manure and stones that  collect under the foot.

Grooming gives the horseman an opportunity to closely inspect all parts of the horse's body for  any cuts, abrasions, or signs of disease. The stable should be equipped with first-aid articles.  Home remedies can be used to treat superficial cuts and abrasions, but a veterinarian should be  called to treat any other kind of injury or disease.

Saddling and Bridling a Horse

An important part of a horse's care is proper saddling and bridling. To put on the bridle, slip it  over the horse's nose, guide the bit into the mouth, and slide the crownpiece over the ears. Adjust  the noseband and browband. Fasten the throatlatch and the curb chain. Be sure that all parts of  the bridle lie flat and are neither too loose nor too tight. To put on the saddle, lay it on the withers  and slide it back into place. Attach the girth or cinch evenly on both sides. The girth should be  neither too loose nor too tight. To test for proper fit, slip a hand between the body of the horse  and the girth just below the saddle, then slide it down to the bottom. It should feel tight only  where it passes under the horse. On western saddles with two cinches, the forward cinch is made  very snug, the rear one less so. Cinches are fitted tighter than girths because of the work the horse  does.

EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE

Horses have a long and interesting history on Earth, and the study of their complex evolutionary  development probably constitutes one of the most extensive and intensive searches done by  scientists. As a result, the evolutionary story of the horse is perhaps the most complete of that of  any of Earth's animals.

Geologists believe that the first humans appeared on Earth about 2 million years ago a very long  time in terms of the way we count time, but like a fraction of a second in terms of geologic time.  Horses appeared on Earth long before people about 60 million years ago, at or shortly before the  beginning of the Eocene epoch of Earth's history. This fact has been so well established that  fossils of these animals found in rock strata are used by scientists to date the rocks. These early  horses lived on both the European and the North American continents. Evidence of possible  ancestors in older rocks in North America, however, leads scientists to believe that probably the  animals originated on that continent.

Eohippus The Dawn Horse

The modern horse with its sleek coat, straight back, proudly arching neck, and long legs bears  little resemblance to its ancient ancestors. This small ancestor was only about the size of an adult  fox. In fact, when the first bones of these animals were found in 1838 and 1839, they were  believed to be the bones of ancient monkeys or of the harelike animals called hyraxes or conies.  The animal was given the scientific name Hyracotherium because of its resemblance to the hyrax;  however, the genus name more commonly used for the animal is Eohippus.

The name Eohippus comes from two Greek words: eos, meaning ,and hippos, meaning .The  name also reflects the fact that Eohippus occurs in the Eocene the portion of the most recent  epoch of geologic time. Eohippus was an active and abundant animal, and many fossils have  been found. However, almost all are fragmentary, and finding a complete skeleton is rare. For this  reason, only a few skeletons have been reconstructed and mounted.

There were several different species of Eohippus, and they varied greatly in size. The smallest  were about 10 inches high at the shoulder, and the largest were more than 20 inches high.

The body of Eohippus looked almost like that of a rabbit. The hindquarters were high, and the  arched back sloped downward toward the neck and head. The animal had a long, stout tail,  which bears no resemblance to that of the modern horse. Modern horses have short tails; the  whisk of hairs that grow from the tip make them appear long.
The head of this ancient animal was shaped almost like that of a dog. The snout was more pointed  than broad as in that of the modern horse. The large eyes were set midway between the front and  the back of the skull. The teeth were simple. The cheek teeth had a few cusps, more like our own  molars than like the large, strong, heavily ridged teeth of the horse today.

The feet of Eohippus added to its doglike appearance. The front feet had four toes, and the hind  feet had three. Each toe ended in its own small hoof. Tough pads, much like those of a dog, bore  the animal's weight.
Eohippus was well equipped to live in the world of its time. The small animal had short legs that  were not built for speed, but it probably was fast for its size. Its light weight and spreading toes  kept it from sinking into the soft earth.

Mesohippus The Middle Horse

Mesohippus probably is the best known fossil horse. Buried and preserved bones of these  animals are abundant, especially in the Badlands of South Dakota. Mesohippus lived about 35  million years ago, during the Oligocene epoch of geologic time.

Unlike Eohippus; Mesohippus looked much like a small modern horse. Although there were  smaller and larger species, Mesohippus averaged about 24 inches. The body was longer than that  of Eohippus, and the back less arched but still not the straight, rigid back of the modern horse.
The head of Mesohippus had a more appearance although the face was still slender and almost  snoutlike. The jaws were still shallow, but the typical horse muzzle probably had begun to  develop. The eyes were positioned farther back on the head than in Eohippus. The teeth were  larger and stronger than those of Eohippus. Also, a little gap was beginning to form behind the  front teeth where today the horse has a large gap into which the bit fits.

The legs of Mesohippus were longer and more slender, but each foot still had several toes. Now,  however, there were only three toes on the front feet as well as on the back feet. As in Eohippus,  the center toe was the largest, and there were pads on the feet and between the toes.

Merychippus The Transformation Horse

Some of the most radical and rapid changes in the evolution of the horse took place during the  Miocene epoch of geologic time. Perhaps the most important were the changes in the structure of  the teeth, which made it possible for horses to become grazers (grass eaters) rather than  browsers (leaf eaters) as Eohippus and Mesohippus had been. By the middle of the Miocene  which began about 26,000,000 years ago Merychippus had molar teeth with high crowns. The  teeth were covered with a strong bonelike substance called cement. Such teeth could grind the  coarse grasses into edible masses for the animal.

Merychippus also showed other changes, somewhat less dramatic than those of the teeth. The  animal grew about 40-42 inches high as large as many modern ponies. It had a long muzzle, deep  jaws, and eyes quite far back on the head. The body and leg proportions were not exactly the  same in all species of Merychippus. Some were stocky, others slender. But in general, changes  that had taken place in the legs and feet made these parts appear more nearly like those of horses  today. Certain bones of the leg grew together, making each leg rigid but highly effective for  carrying weight and for a more efficient forward motion. The feet still had three toes, but the  weight of the animal was carried on a greatly enlarged and strongly hoofed central toe. The side  toes were short and small, and the foot pads had disappeared.

Pliohippus The One-Toed Grazing Horse

Several groups of horses descended from Merychippus. One of these was Pliohippus, a horse  of the Pliocene epoch. The modern horse, Equus, is a direct descendant of Pliohippus.  Although, again, there are variations among some species, generally Pliohippus closely resembles  the horse of today. Pliohippus had only one hoofed toe. The others became slivers of bone  (splints) that even in modern horses grow along the cannon bone of the leg. Differences between  Pliohippus and the modern Equus lie mostly in the refinement of the details of the animals'  anatomy, which are used by scientists to separate them.

THE HORSE IN HISTORY

Man's association with the horse probably began more than 4,000 years ago. In the beginning this  association was not a companionable one. Prehistorians believe that man hunted horses as a game  animal.
No one knows exactly when or where man first tamed the horse. Some scientists believe that the  first horses may have been domesticated in the area of present day Turkestan, probably long  before 2000 BC. The horse worked for man as a draft animal for at least 1,000 years before the  art of riding developed. However, some groups of nomads probably had small herds of these  animals and rode them. When Greek traders first saw these mounted men in the Black Sea  region, they believed them to be a strange animal, half horse and half man. The Greeks called  them centaurs and developed many fables about these unusual beasts.

Horses in the Ancient World

War horses and chariots were used by the Mitanni in Syria and the Hittites in Anatolia by about  1600 BC. A remarkable book, the earliest known work devoted exclusively to horses, was  written by a Mitanni horseman hired by a Hittite king. The clay tablets that comprise the book  give detailed directions for the care and training of chariot horses.
In about 1700 BC the Hyksos from Syria and Palestine introduced domesticated horses into  Egypt. By the 1500s BC, the Egyptians used horse-drawn vehicles, but few Egyptians rode  horses. By 1000 BC the use of horses had spread westward from Egypt.

The Greeks viewed the horse as a heroic symbol, a wonder beast ridden by great warriors and  by the gods. The Romans made great use of the horse, and vehicles carrying freight or passengers  clattered over the streets of Rome. By 45 BC, all vehicles had been banned from within the city,  and in other cities they were allowed only at night. Presumably the reason for this ban was  because the vehicles endangered pedestrians and caused traffic jams.

As the use of horses spread throughout the ancient world, breeding programs were established to  produce animals with special qualities to suit specific purposes. For example, a large, heavy horse  was needed to carry an armored soldier into battle, but a small, light horse could be used for  riding and racing. Generations of cross-breeding made pure strains rare.

Horses in the Medieval World

During the Middle Ages, experimentation in breeding horses continued. The growth of  international trade increased the need for a reasonable means for the overland transportation of  goods. Sturdy pack horses were desired to carry merchandise between towns and into the  countryside. Large, strong draft horses were in demand for use in teams to draw carts of bulk  merchandise over long distances. In addition, horses for the business of knighthood had to be  developed. A well-equipped knight needed at least four different types of horses: (1) a charger,  (2) a palfrey, (3) a courser, and (4) a battle horse.

Horses in American Conquest and Exploration

European explorers brought horses to the New World the first in the Americas since the native  horses had died out about 8,500 years before. The Spanish had royal horse farms operating in  Jamaica by 1515, and Francisco Pizarro obtained horses from these farms for his expeditions to  Peru. Stock farms in Cuba supplied horses to Hernando Cortez for the invasion of Mexico in  1519. Horses carried the Spanish explorers and colonizers in their push through southwestern and  western North America.

The westward movement from eastern North America is usually symbolized by the covered  wagon. Many of the wagons were drawn by oxen, but mounted explorers usually preceded them,  and mounted scouts accompanied them. After the West began to open up, the wagons were  replaced by stagecoaches that carried passengers and mail.
Until the early 1900s, horses supplied much of the transportation and much of the power for  vehicles. Horses pulled the first railroad cars. In the cities, horses drew the garbage wagons, milk  carts, and fire engines. On the farms, ranches, and plantations, they powered the plows and  harvesting machines. Today, the automobile, truck, and tractor have largely replaced the horse,  although the performance capability of these vehicles is still evaluated in horsepower.

Horses in Sport

The horse has long been a source of recreation for humans. The Persians were playing polo long  before 600 BC. The ancient Greeks hunted wild boar and mountain lion on horseback. The  ancient Romans conducted horse shows, which included chariot racing as well as trick riding. The  English of the 1100s enjoyed thoroughbred racing and fox hunting. Circuses and rodeos still draw  thousands of spectators.
As the horse became less important in warfare, as a beast of burden, and as a means of  transportation because of increased mechanization, it became more important in sport. In the  United States, after a drop in the horse population during the early 1900s, the number of horses  bred and registered gradually increased. Today horses are used for pleasure riding, racing,  hunting, and polo. Horse show competitions of various kinds are also popular. Many persons vie  for top honors at rodeos, pony club rallies, and 4-H club meets as well as at the traditional horse  shows. Although the use of the workhorse has gradually dwindled, the need of the horse as a  companion in recreation continues to increase.

THE HORSE IN THE ARTS

The horse has played an enormously important part in the daily life of man since prehistoric times.  So it is not surprising to find that the horse has been a favored subject for artists in every field  throughout history. Even in prehistoric times, hunters scratched pictures of horses on the walls of  caves. These drawings, some of which date back to about 18,000 BC, vividly depict in simple  lines the animation and action of the animals. The cave artists also succeeded in showing the  distinguishing characteristics of the wild horse such as the short body, thick neck with heavy head  and upright mane, and short but graceful legs.

The Assyrians, whose land lay between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, were very interested in  horses. Relief sculptures carved in stone depict the deeds of their warriors. Sophisticated and  detailed carvings in the stone ruins of the ancient city of Calah in Iraq show Assyrian war  chariots.

Egyptians decorated their tombs with spindle-legged stylized horses. Those shown on tombs  were often many times larger than life size. A small wooden statuette of a horse and rider, carved  about 1500 BC, was found inside a tomb. The sculptured horse is much more graceful than those  shown in the drawings by artists of this period.

The beauty and form of the horse seems to have inspired artists of almost every culture. We find  Japanese screens, Russian icons, ancient Persian tapestries, and 16th-century East Indian  miniatures showing the horse in action some in warfare and others in such sports as polo and lion  and tiger hunting.

Perhaps the most famous and beautiful sculptures of all time are those of the horses that form part  of a frieze around the Parthenon in Athens. These sculptures, done by the Greek sculptor Phidias  about 447 BC, express the Greek idea of perfection. They show young men riding bareback on  graceful horses that are portrayed at all gaits as well as at the halt or performing dressage  movements.

Throughout the world, there are statues of history's famous military men, always mounted with the  charger at the levade, or prancing with arched neck. In Italy, the museums and public squares of  cities and towns are filled with statues of mounted and unmounted horses. Some of these date  back to the 1st century BC. In Venice, Andrea del Verrocchio's monument to the military leader  Bartolommeo Colleoni, done in the late 1400s, shows the artist's ability to portray in bronze the  strength and straining energy of a military horse.

During the Middle Ages, tapestries were a popular art form. Many of the castles of Europe used  tapestries not only as a decoration but as a practical measure to help cover the stone walls and  keep out the cold. The tapestry scenes often included horses. Perhaps one of the best known is  the Bayeux Tapestry, thought by some to have been designed by Queen Matilda to honor the  success of her husband, William the Conqueror, when he invaded England in 1066. Two hundred  horses are embroidered into this work of art.

During the 1500s and 1600s Dutch, Flemish, and Spanish painters were interested in portraying  the horse in sports. Sporting prints became extremely popular in England during the 18th and 19th  centuries when many artists produced racing and hunting scenes. Many American artists used  horses as subjects in some of their art. Among these were Frederick Remington, who is famous  for his portrayals of pioneer life in the American West.

The mythology of almost every Western culture includes the horse as an important character. For  example, in Greek mythology the sun god, Apollo, crossed the heavens each day in a chariot  drawn by fiery steeds. Another famous Greek horse was Bellerophon's flying horse Pegasus, who  was placed among the stars. Norse myths tell the story of the hero Sigurd, who rides a brave  stallion through a wall of magic fire to rescue the heroine Brynhild. This same story occurs in  German mythology and became the basis for Richard Wagner's opera .

The grace and beauty of the horse has inspired many poets. William Shakespeare's famous poem  and Adonispaints superb word pictures of a stallion and a filly. Lines from this poem appear  under the photograph at the beginning of this article. Another poet, John Masefield, created two  masterpieces describing the horse in sports. His the Foxtells of the thrills of a hunt, and Royal  portrays the excitement of a horse race.

Novelists, too, have been inspired by the strength and spirit of this animal. Books about horses in  fact and fiction are extremely popular with readers of all ages and many appear every year. At the  end of this article is a list of some of the fine books that have been written about horses.

HORSE TERMS

aid. The signal or command given to a horse by the rider indicating what the horse is to do.  Natural aids are conveyed by the rider's hands, legs, voice, back, and weight distribution.  Artificial aids include spurs, whip,
and martingale.

bit. The metal part of the bridle that fits into the horse's mouth under the tongue. The reins are  attached to it.
cadence. The rhythm of a horse's gait. Each gait has its own beat. The walk, for example, is a  slow one-two-three-four; the trot, a fast one-two, one-two.

cold blood. All horses are considered to have cold blood except Thoroughbreds and Arabian  breeds. The phrase implies that the horse is unexcitable, a calm and phlegmatic type.

collection. The gathering together by the horse of all its forces to be ready to move at any gait  in any direction immediately upon demand of the rider. All gaits have an extended and collected  form. Collected gaits such as the slow canter give the horse more elevation but less forward  movement.

colt. A male horse between the age of weaning and 4 years old.
dressage. Specially designed training and exercises that make the horse supple, collected,  balanced, and responsive to aids.

filly. A female horse between the age of weaning and 4 years old.
foal. A male or female horse between birth and weaning. Used as a verb, the word means give  birth.

gait. The way and sequence in which a horse places its feet on the ground to obtain forward  motion.

gelding. An altered male horse.

hand. The scale of measurement for a horse's height. Height is measured from the highest point  of the withers to the ground. A hand is equal to 4 inches, and fractions of a hand are given in  inches. In the figure 15.2 hands, for example, the horse is 15 hands or 60 inches high, plus 2  inches, or a total of 62 inches.

haute ecole. The school of horse training; the special training in performing difficult movements  especially as practiced by the Lipizzan horses and riders at the Spanish Riding School in Vienna.

hot blood. All Thoroughbreds and Arabian breeds are considered to have hot blood. The  phrase implies that the horse is spirited and eager and has a delicate head and fine coat.

mare. A female horse that is more than 4 years old.

mudder. Horse that runs well on a wet, sloppy racetrack.

seat. The position of a horseman in the saddle. The position differs with the type of riding that is  done and the type of horse that is ridden.
stallion. An unaltered male horse that is more than 4 years old.

tack. Stable gear. Tack, derived from tackle, includes all the horse's equipment for riding such  as saddle, bridle, and halter.

tack-up. To saddle and bridle a horse.

yearling. A young male or female horse during the year between its first and second birthdays.

FAMOUS HORSES

Black Beauty. The horse that is the main character in a book of the same name written by  Anna Sewell to call attention to common abuses of the animal in the 19th century.

Bucephalus. The favorite mount of Alexander the Great during his Asian conquests, and in  whose honor Alexander named a city in Persia.

Bulle Rock. First thoroughbred to be imported from England to America (1730).

Byerly Turk. One of the three stallions on which the Thoroughbred line of racehorses was  founded.

Ching Chui. One of the six famous war-horses of the Chinese Emperor T'ai Tsung, who died  in AD 637. His tomb was decorated with statues of his war-horses, and a poem commemorated  the victorious battle in which each took part.

Copenhagen. The favorite mount of the Duke of Wellington, who rode this famous charger in  the battle of Waterloo.

Darley Arabian. One of the three stallions on which the Thoroughbred line of racehorses was  founded.

Flicka. A main character in the well-known novel 'My Friend Flicka' by Mary O'Hara.

Godolphin Barb, or Godolphin Arabian. One of the three stallions on which the  Thoroughbred line of horses was founded.
Iroquois. The first American-bred horse to win the English Derby.

Justin Morgan. Foundation sire of the Morgan breed, one of the best-known breeds of road  horse in America.

Marengo. The favorite mount of Napoleon, on which the emperor was mounted at Waterloo.

Nelson. General George Washington's charger, which was present at Valley Forge and  Yorktown and remained with the first president at Mount Vernon.

Pegasus. The winged horse of Greek mythology who carried the thunderbolt of Zeus and for  whom a constellation is named.

Rakush. The mount of Rustam, the chief hero of the Persian epic poem 'Shah Namah', or  Book of Kings, in which Rakush was reputed to be the best war-horse in the world and largely  responsible for his master's successful exploits.

Rosinante. The ugly horse that carried Don Quixote on his bumbling adventures in Cervantes'  tale 'Don Quixote'.

Sleepy Tom. Although blind, this horse became the outstanding pacer of the world, racing at  top speed with only the voice and signals of his trainer as guides.

Sultan. Sometimes called lvan, this horse was the favorite mount of William Cody (Buffalo Bill)  and was often used in his Wild West shows.
Traveller. The favorite mount and almost inseparable companion of Gen. Robert E. Lee.  Traveller was with Lee from Appomattox to Richmond and went with him to Lexington when Lee  became president of Washington College there.

Trojan Horse. The huge wooden horse in whose hollow body Greek soldiers hid to gain entry  into the city of Troy to conquer it. The story is told in Homer's 'lliad'.

Contributors for this article include Margaret Cabell Self, author of 'The Horseman's  Encyclopedia' and many other books about horses and horsemanship, and Albert M. Lane,  Livestock Specialist, University of Arizona School of Agriculture. The section of the Horse  was critically reviewed by George Gaylord Simpson, Late Professor of Geology, University  of Arizona.

THE HORSE IN LITERATURE
FICTION

Anderson, C.W. Billy and Blaze (Macmillan, 1936). The first of the excellent Blaze stories for  young horse lovers. Billy receives a horse for his birthday and names it for the marking on its face.  Illustrated by the author. Others in the series include 'Blaze and the Gypsies' (1937) and 'Blaze  and Thunderbolt' (1955).

Bagnold, Enid. National Velvet (Morrow, 1949). A famous novel about a girl who races her  beloved horse in the Grand National. Illustrated by Paul Brown.

Farley, Walter. The Black Stallion (Random, 1941). The first of a popular series about a wild  horse and its racehorse descendants. See also 'Son of the Black Stallion' (1947) and 'The Blood  Bay Colt' (1950).

Henry, Marguerite. King of the Wind (Rand, 1948). A Newbery-winning story about the  sire of a long line of Arabian thoroughbreds, including Man o' War. Illustrated by Wesley Dennis.  Also by Mrs. Henry are 'Misty of Chincoteague' (1947), 'Brighty of the Grand Canyon' (1953),  and 'White Stallion of Lipizza' (1964).

James, Will. Smoky (Scribner, 1926). Written in cowboy dialect, this story tells of a horse  that becomes a killer after being mistreated. Illustrated by the author and winner of the Newbery  Medal in 1927.

O'Hara, Mary. My Friend Flicka (Lippincott, 1941). The first of a trilogy, which includes  'Thunderhead' (1943) and 'Green Grass of Wyoming' (1946), written for adults but enjoyed by  children. A story of a boy's love for his colt, with fine descriptions of Wyoming.

Rounds, Glen. The Blind Colt (Holiday, 1941). A tender story of a boy's devotion to a  mustang marked for death.

Sewell, Anna. Black Beauty (Pendulum, 1973). Written as a protest in 1877 when there was  much cruelty to horses, this sentimental story is still enjoyed by young readers.

Steinbeck, John. The Red Pony (Viking Press, 1959). A 1937 short novel by a Nobel prize  laureate tells of Jody's discovery of the meaning of life when his pony dies. Illustrated by Wesley  Dennis.

NONFICTION

Amaral, Anthony. Movie Horses (Bobbs, 1967). Describes how horses are trained for  motion picture scenes.

Anderson, C.W. Complete Book of Horses and Horsemanship (Macmillan, 1973). Covers  the history, breeds, and care of the horse. Illustrated by the author.

Brady, Irene. America's Horses and Ponies (Houghton, 1969). Describes popular American  breeds.

Haines, Francis. Horses in America (Crowell, 1971). A fascinating history of the role of the  horse.

Henry, Marguerite. Album of Horses (Rand, 1951). Contains little-known facts about 20  breeds of horses. Illustrated by Wesley Dennis.
Henry, Marguerite. All About Horses (Random, 1967). The characteristics, breeds, and  history of the horse are surveyed for younger readers.

Hofsinde, Robert. The Indian and His Horse (Morrow, 1960). Describes the effect of the  horse on the life of the American Indian.

Ryden, Hope. America's Last Wild Horses (Dutton, 1970). A natural history of the wild  horses whose existence is now threatened.

Self, M.C. At the Horse Show with Margaret Cabell Self (A. S. Barnes, 1966). The principles  of showing a horse, show jumping, and gaits.

Self, M.C. The Complete Book of Horses & Ponies (McGraw, 1963). Anatomy, breeds,  care, and riding.

Simpson, G.G. Horses: the Story of the Horse Family in the Modern World and Through  Sixty Million Years of History (Oxford, 1951). Describes the evolution of the horse for older  readers.

Slaughter, Jean. Pony Care (Knopf, 1961). A helpful guide to the daily care of ponies.

Sullivan, George. Better Horseback Riding for Boys and Girls (Dodd, 1969). Illustrated  instructions for the beginner from leading a horse to tacking up.

Zuelke, Ruth. The Horse in Art (Lerner Publications, 1965). Examines the style of artists who  used horses as subjects.
 
 

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